- 2009
- Jan
- 11
Disposable Diaper
A disposable diaper consists of an absorbent pad sandwiched between two sheets of nonwoven fabric. The pad is specially designed to absorb and retain body fluids, and the nonwoven fabric gives the diaper a comfortable shape and helps prevent leakage. These diapers are made by a multi-step process in which the absorbent pad is first vacuum-formed, then attached to a permeable top sheet and impermeable bottom sheet. The components are sealed together by application of heat or ultrasonic vibrations. Elastic fibers are attached to the sheets to gather the edges of the diaper into the proper shape so it fits snugly around a baby’s legs and crotch. When properly fitted, the disposable diaper will retain body fluids which pass through the permeable top sheet and are absorbed into the pad.
Disposable diapers are a relatively recent invention. In fact, until the early 1970s mothers had no real alternative to classic cloth diapers. Cotton diapers have the advantage of being soft, comfortable, and made of natural materials. Their disadvantages include their relatively poor absorbency and the fact that they have to be laundered. Disposable diapers were developed to overcome these problems. The earliest disposables used wood pulp fluff, cellulose wadding, fluff cellulose, or cotton fibers as the absorbent material. These materials did not absorb very much moisture for their weight, however. Consequently, diapers made from these materials were extremely bulky. More efficient absorbent polymers were developed to address this issue.
Since the 1970s, disposable diaper technology has continued to evolve. In fact, nearly 1,000 patents related to diaper design and construction have been issued in the last 25 years. Today’s diapers are not only highly functional, they include advanced features such as special sizing and coloring for specific gender and age, color change indicators to show when the child is wet, and reattachable VelcroTM-type closures. These innovations have enabled disposables to capture a large share of the diaper market. In 1996, disposable diaper sales exceeded $4 billion in the United States alone. Proctor and Gamble and Kimberly Clark are the two largest brand name manufacturers, and their sales account for nearly 80% of the market. Private label manufacturers that produce store brands and generic diapers account for most of the remaining 20%.
Raw Materials
Absorbent pad - The single most important property of a diaper, cloth or disposable, is its ability to absorb and retain moisture. Cotton material used in cloth diapers is reasonably absorbent, but synthetic polymers far exceed the capacity of natural fibers. Today’s state-of-the-art disposable diaper will absorb 15 times its weight in water. This phenomenal absorption capacity is due to the absorbent pad found in the core of the diaper. This pad is composed of two essential elements, a hydrophilic, or water-loving, polymer and a fibrous material such as wood pulp. The polymer is made of fine particles of an acrylic acid derivative, such as sodium acrylate, potassium acrylate, or an alkyl acrylate. These polymeric particles act as tiny sponges that retain many times their weight in water. Microscopically these polymer molecules resemble long chains or ropes. Portions of these chemical “ropes” are designed to interact with water molecules. Other parts of the polymer have the ability to chemically link with different polymer molecules in a process known as cross linking. When a large number of these polymeric chains are cross linked, they form a gel network that is not water soluble but that can absorb vast amounts of water. Polymers with this ability are referred to as hydrogels, superabsorbents, or hydrocolloids. Depending on the degree of cross linking, the strength of the gel network can be varied. This is an important property because gel strength is related to the tendency of the polymer to deform or flow under stress. If the strength is too high the polymer will not retain enough water. If it too low the polymer will deform too easily, and the outermost particles in the pad will absorb water too quickly, forming a gel that blocks water from reaching the inner pad particles. This problem, known as gel blocking, can be overcome by dispersing wood pulp fibers throughout the polymer matrix. These wood fibers act as thousands of tiny straws which suck up water faster and disperse it through the matrix more efficiently to avoid gel blocking. Manufacturers have optimized the combinations of polymer and fibrous material to yield the most efficient absorbency possible.
Nonwoven fabric - The absorbent pad is at the core of the diaper. It is held in place by nonwoven fabric sheets that form the body of the diaper. Nonwoven fabrics are different from traditional fabrics because of the way they are made. Traditional fabrics are made by weaving together fibers of silk, cotton, polyester, wool, etc. to create an interlocking network of fiber loops. Nonwovens are typically made from plastic resins, such as nylon, polyester, polyethylene, or polypropylene, and are assembled by mechanically, chemically, or thermally interlocking the plastic fibers. There are two primary methods of assembling nonwovens, the wet laid process and the dry laid process. A dry laid process, such as the “meltblown” method, is typically used to make nonwoven diaper fabrics. In this method the plastic resin is melted and extruded, or forced, through tiny holes by air pressure. As the air-blown stream of fibers cools, the fibers condense onto a sheet. Heated rollers are then used to flatten the fibers and bond them together. Polypropylene is typically the material used for the permeable top sheet, while polyethylene is the resin of choice for the non-permeable back sheet.
Other components - There are a variety of other ancillary components, such as elastic threads, hot melt adhesives, strips of tape or other closures, and inks used for printing decorations.
The Manufacturing Process
Formation of the absorbent pad - The absorbent pad is formed on a movable conveyer belt that passes through a long “forming chamber.” At various points in the chamber, pressurized nozzles spray either polymer particles or fibrous material onto the conveyor surface. The bottom of the conveyor is perforated, and as the pad material is sprayed onto the belt, a vacuum is applied from below so that the fibers are pulled down to form a flat pad.
At least two methods have been employed to incorporate absorbent polymers into the pad. In one method the polymer is injected into the same feed stock that supplies the fibers. This method produces a pad that has absorbent polymer dispersed evenly throughout its entire length, width, and thickness. The problems associated with method are that loss of absorbent may occur because the fine particles are pulled through the perforations in the conveyor by the vacuum. It is therefore expensive and messy. This method also causes the pad to absorb unevenly since absorbent is lost from only one side and not the other.
A second method of applying polymer and fiber involves application of the absorbent material onto the top surface of the pad after it has been formed. This method produces a pad which has absorbent material concentrated on its top side and does not have much absorbency throughout the pad. Another disadvantage is that a pad made in this way may lose some of the polymer applied to its surface. Furthermore, this approach tends to cause gel blocking, since all the absorbent is on the outside of the pad. The moisture gets trapped in this outer layer and does not have a chance to diffuse to the center. This blockage holds moisture against the skin and can lead to discomfort for the wearer.
These problems are solved by controlling the mixture polymer and fibrous material. Multiple spray dispensers are used to apply several layers of polymer and fiber. As the fiber is drawn into the chamber and the bottom of the pad is formed, a portion of the polymer is added to the mix to form a layer of combined polymer and fiber. Then more pure fiber is pulled on top to give a sandwich effect. This formation creates a pad with the absorbent polymer confined to its center, surrounded by fibrous material. Gel blockage is not a problem because the polymer is concentrated at core of pad. It also solves the problem of particle loss since all the absorbent is surrounded by fibrous material. Finally, this process is more cost effective because it distributes the polymer just where it is needed.
After the pad has received a full dose of fiber and polymer, it proceeds down the conveyor path to a leveling roller near the outlet of the forming chamber. This roller removes a portion of the fiber at the top of the pad to make it a uniform thickness. The pad then moves by the conveyor through the outlet for subsequent operations to form the competed diaper.
Preparation of the nonwoven - Sheets of nonwoven fabric are formed from plastic resin using the meltblown process as described above. These sheets are produced as a wide roll known as a “web,” which is then cut to the appropriate width for use in diapers. There is a web for the top sheet and another for the bottom sheet. It should be noted that this step does not necessarily occur in sequence after pad formation because the nonwoven fabrics are often made in a separate location. When the manufacturer is ready to initiate diaper production these large bolts of fabric are connected to special roller equipment that feeds fabric to the assembly line.
At some point in the process, stretched elastic bands are attached to the backing sheet with adhesive. After the diaper is assembled, these elastic bands contract and gather the diaper together to ensure a snug fit and limit leakage.
Assembly of the components - At this point in the process there are still three separate components, the absorbent pad, the top sheet, and the backing sheet. These three components are in long strips and must be joined together and cut into diaper-sized units. This is accomplished by feeding the absorbent pad onto a conveyor with the polyethylene bottom sheet. The polypropylene top sheet is then fed into place, and the compiled sheets are joined by gluing, heating, or ultrasonic welding. The assembled diaper may have other attachments, such as strips of tape or Velcro™, which act as closures.
The long roll is then cut into individual diapers, folded, and packaged for shipping.
Byproducts/Waste
Diaper production does not produce significant byproducts; in fact the diaper industry uses the byproducts of other industries. The absorbent polymers used in diaper production are often left over from production lines of other chemical industries. The polymer particles are too small for other applications, but they are well suited for use in diapers. In diaper production, however, considerable amounts of both nonwoven material and polymer particles are wasted. To minimize this waste, the industry tries to optimize the number of diapers obtained from every square yard (meter) of material. Furthermore, every attempt is made to recover the excess fiber and polymer material used in the forming chamber. However, this is not always possible due to clogging of filters and other losses.
Quality Control
There are several methods used to control the quality of disposable diapers, and most of these relate to the product’s absorbency. One key is to make sure the polymer/fiber ratio in the absorbent pad is correct. Too much variation will impact the diaper’s ability to soak up moisture. Industry trial and error has shown that for optimal performance and cost, the fiber to particle ratio should be about 75:25 to 90:10. Even more critical than this ratio are the size and distribution of these particles. It has been established that particles with mass median particle size greater than or equal to about 400 microns work very well with the fibers to enhance the rate at which the fluid is transported away from the body. If the particles vary much outside this range, gel blocking may occur.
There are several standard tests the industry uses to establish diaper absorbency. One is referred to as Demand Wettability or Gravimetric Absorbance. These tests evaluate what is are commonly referred to as Absorbance Under Load (AUL). AUL is defined as the amount of 0.9% saline solution absorbed by the polymers while being subjected to pressure equivalent to 21,000 dynes, or about 0.30 lb/sq in (0.021 kg/sq cm). This test simulates the effect of a baby sitting on a wet diaper. If the diaper has an absorbency of at least 24 ml/g after one hour, the quality is considered acceptable.
Other quality control factors besides absorbency are related to the diaper’s fit and comfort. Particular attention must be paid to the melt characteristics of the nonwoven fabrics used to form the diaper’s shell. If materials with different melting points are used, the material that melts the quickest may become too soft and stick to the assembly apparatus. When the fabric is pulled off it may be left with a rough surface that is uncomfortable to the user. Finally, the alignment of the components must be carefully checked or leakage may result.
The Future
Disposable diaper manufacture is a high technology field which has consistently shown innovation over the last few decades. Nonetheless, there are still a number of areas which require additional improvement. One such area is that of leakage reduction. It is likely that manufacturers will develop improved elastic bands to hold the waist more tightly without causing chafing or discomfort. It is also likely that current concern regarding the role of disposable diapers in landfills will impact manufacturing and formulation. This concern may to lead to the development of diapers which are less bulky and more biodegradable.
- in General, Medical, Kids, Family
- Add a comment
- 2008
- Dec
- 14
Top Fat Burners
The following is an extract from bodybuilding.com written by doggiejoe.
Oh ephedra, ephedra, where is my ephedra? It’s been well over a year since you were able to purchase ephedra legally over the counter. The loss was a huge one and nearly took out the heart of the supplement world. But we got through it. Yes, ladies and gentleman, we got through it. Later on in this article you’ll see the products that helped us get over the loss of ephedra.
Without the benefit of ephedra, supplement companies were left with no option but to create new fat burning products. The initial fat burners that came out after the ban weren’t that great to say the least. The leading brands Xenadrine and Hydroxycut from the ephedra era produced some disappointing post-ephedra supplements. They had everyone believing that their post ephedra products were going to be just as good or better than the original. Boy, were we fooled.
That led everyone to believe that without ephedra there wouldn’t be another best fat burner that actually worked. But with the loss of ephedra, it also brought about new exciting ingredients to light.
Here are some of the ingredients that came to light:
Green Tea Extract
Green tea came from China, and is said to have been used for thousands of years. It was never really regarded as a fat loss agent until ephedra was banned. Green tea is a very versatile ingredient that can be used by the body in many different ways.
It also works as an anti-inflammatory. What has been overlooked is its effectiveness in also reducing fat in your body. It is a great ingredient to cut down on fat and is even better for your overall health. It is also good at giving you energy throughout the day, so you can replace your regular coffee with green tea.
R-ALA
R-ALA is the purest form of ALA (Alpha-Lipoic-Acid). What it does, is that it speeds the removal of sugar from the blood. It’s quickly turning into a widely used fat loss ingredient.
It also works for energy because it helps break down sugar for the production of ATP, which helps your body go. This helps carbs be used as energy and not be stored as fat. It even works as an anti-aging product and it is also proven to expand your total lifespan.
CLA
Basically CLA is a fatty acid that in turn helps you lose fat. It is naturally occurring and can be found in meat and diary products. Not only will CLA help you naturally burn off fat, but it will also build muscle. CLA is also proven to improve your food intake efficiency. Not only can CLA make you lose fat, but also once you dropped the amount of weight you desire it will help you maintain that weight. In some studies it shows to even improve concentration and sleep.
- 2008
- Nov
- 22
Phentermine weight loss pill
Phentermine is a drug that inhibits appetite. It is similar to amphetamine in action. It stimulates the nervous system which controls the appetite, increases heart rate and elevates blood pressure. You can buy Phentermine 37.5 mg without prescription
Phentermine is ideally combined with proper diet and exercise for treatment of obesity – it is for individuals with a BMI greater than 30 kg/m2. Weight loss is needed to lower the risks of heart disease. Do not combine Phentermine with other weight loss medications. The combination of Phentermine with Fenfluramine (known as FEN-PHEN) is reported to cause serious heart problems. Today, Fenfluramine is banned in the United States.
The recommended dose of Phentermine is 30 mg once daily, 2 hours after breakfast. Avoid taking evening doses because it causes insomnia. Other side effects include vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, dry mouth, hives, palpitations and sometimes tremor. Order Phentermine online and start losing weight. Consult your doctor before taking this medication to avoid complications.
I have written some articles before about Phentermine.
- in General, Science, Medical, Family
- Add a comment
- 2008
- Nov
- 21
Vital info on HEART BLOCKAGE
This is an e-mail received from a person working in a software company
Dear colleagues,
I am working in Blore Software City . I want to share an incident of my life with you, hoping that it may be an eyeopener to you so that you can live more years.
On 27th October afternoon, I had severe heart attack symptom and I was rushed to the hospital.
After reaching the hospital, the doctors prescribed a test called angiogram. This test is basically to identify blood flow of heart arteries. When they finished the test, they found a 94% block in the main artery.
At this point, I want to share my lifestyle, which has caused this block in my heart arteries. Please see the below points of my lifestyle. If any of these points are part of your lifestyle, then you are at risk. Please change yourselves.
1. I was not doing any physical exercise for more than 10 years, not even walking-30-minutes-a-day for years.
2. My food timings are 11:00 AM Breakfast or no Breakfast, 3:00 PM to 4:00 PM Lunch and dinner between 11:00 PM and 12:00 midnight.
3. Sleeping in very odd timings, going to bed between 12:00 AM and 3:00 AM. Waking up at between 9:00 AM and 10:30AM ……. Sometimes spending sleepless nights.
4. I used to eat heavily because of long gaps between lunch and dinner, and I used to make sure that Non-Vegie is available most of the time. There were times when I did survey on city hotels to find delicious Non-Vegie dishes. I was never interested in vegetables and healthier foods.
5. Above all I was a chain-smoker for years.
6. My father passed away due to heart problems, and the doctors say heart problems are usually hereditary.
Once they identified the major blockage, they immediately do a procedure called angioplasty, along with 2 stitches, meaning they will insert a foreign body into the heart arteries and open the blocked area.
I learned from the doctors that 60% people will die before reaching the hospital, 20% people will die in the process of recovering from heart attack and only 20% will survive. I n my case, I was very lucky to be part of the last 20%.
Doctors’ instructions:
1. You need to have a physical exercise for a minimum of 45 minutes daily.
2. Eat your food at perfect schedule, like how you eat during your school days. Eat in small quantities more times and have a lot of vegetables and boiled food. Try avoiding fried and oily foods. Fish is better than other non-vegetarian foods.
3. Sleep for 8 hours a day, this count should be complete before sunrise.
4. Stop smoking.
5. We cannot avoid genetic problems, but we can get away from it by having regular checkups.
6. Find a way to get relief from stress (Yoga, Meditation etc.).
So I urge you all to please avoid getting into this kind of situation. It is in your hands to turn the situation upside down, by just planning / changing your lifestyle and by following the above simple advices.
Here’s a natural therapy for opening up blocked arteries.
Please pass it on to your colleagues and friends.
Remedy for Clogged Heart Veins
1) Lemon juice 01 cup
2) Ginger juice 01 cup
3) Garlic juice 01 cup
4) Apple vinegar 01 cup
Mix all the ingredients above and boil in light flame for approximately half an hour. When the mixture turns to about 3 cups, take it out from the stove and set it aside for cooling. After cooling, add 3 cups of natural honey to the mixture and keep it in a sterile bottle.
Every morning before breakfast, use one tablespoonful regularly. Your vein blockage will open up. (There would be no need of any costly angiography or bypass operation).
- 2008
- Nov
- 15
Cost Cutting Rules in Office
To: All Employees
DUE TO BUDGET CUTS, THIS IS YOUR NEW CUBICLE
EFFECTIVE OCTOBER 1, 2008 NEW OFFICE POLICY
Dress Code:
1) You are advised to come to work dressed according to your salary.
2) If we see you wearing Prada shoes and carrying a Gucci bag, we will assume you are doing well financially and therefore do not need a raise.
3) If you dress poorly, you need to learn to manage your money better, so that you may buy nicer clothes, and therefore you do not need a raise.
4) If you dress just right, you are right where you need to be and therefore you do not need a raise.
Sick Days:
We will no longer accept a doctor’s statement as proof of sickness. If you are able to go to the doctor, you are able to come to work .
Personal Days:
Each employee will receive 104 personal days a year. They are called Saturdays & Sundays.
Bereavement Leave:
This is no excuse for missing work. There is nothing you can do for dead friends, relatives or co-workers. Every effort should be made to have non-employees attend the funeral arrangements in your place. In
rare cases where employee involvement is necessary, the funeral should be scheduled in the late afternoon. We will be glad to allow you to work through your lunch hour and subsequently leave one hour early.
Bathroom Breaks:
Entirely too much time is being spent in the toilet. There is now a strict three-minute time limit in the stalls. At the end of three minutes, an alarm will sound, the toilet paper roll will retract, the
stall door will open, and a picture will be taken. After your second offense, your picture will be posted on the company bulletin board under the ‘Chronic Offenders’ category. Anyone caught smiling in the
picture will be sectioned under the company’s mental health policy.
Lunch Break: (Love this one)
* Skinny people get 30 minutes for lunch, as they need to eat more, so that they can look healthy.
* Normal size people get 15 minutes for lunch to get a balanced meal to maintain their average figure.
* Chubby people get 5 minutes for lunch, because that’s all the time needed to drink a Slim-Fast.
Thank you for your loyalty to our company. We are here to provide a positive employment experience. Therefore, all questions, comments, concerns, complaints, frustrations, irritations, aggravations, insinuations, allegations, accusations, contemplations, consternation and input should be directed elsewhere.
The Management